When Can Compliments and Humour Be Considered Hate Speech? A Perspective From Target Groups in Portugal

Cláudia Silva; Paula Carvalho

doi:10.17231/comsoc.43(2023).4135

Authors

Cláudia Silva Laboratory for Robotics and Engineering Systems, Interactive Technologies Institute, Lisbon, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5334-3424
Paula Carvalho Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores — Investigação e Desenvolvimento, Lisbon, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2884-1250

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17231/comsoc.43(2023).4135

Keywords:

covert hate speech, stereotypes, compliment, humour, hate speech targets

Abstract

This article presents a qualitative study that examines hate speech (HS) from the perspectives of the most representative minority communities in Portugal, namely Afro-descendants, Roma, and LGBTQ+. The empirical research employed three focus groups, each with a representation of these communities (n=17), with the primary goal of investigating how members of these groups perceive and experience HS within the Portuguese social and geopolitical context. The results indicate that covert HS can be more detrimental than overt HS since the targeted individuals are often caught off guard and unsure how to respond, contributing to the continuation of systems of oppression and social decline. Additionally, our qualitative data show that covert forms of HS often manifest in the form of compliments and humour, common in various settings, such as the workplace, the media, and the online environment. These devices are communicative strategies anchored in both positive and negative stereotypes and may lead to the normalization of HS in Portuguese society. In this regard, this research draws attention to the significance of identifying covert forms of HS and devising strategies, such as counter-speech, to debunk them. Furthermore, it highlights the need for automatic detection of covert HS since these forms are prevalent in digital platforms.

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Author Biographies

Cláudia Silva, Laboratory for Robotics and Engineering Systems, Interactive Technologies Institute, Lisbon, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

Cláudia Silva (PhD in digital media) is an invited assistant professor at the Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, and a researcher at the Interactive Technologies Institute/Laboratory of Robotics and Engineering Systems. Prior, she was an invited assistant professor at NOVA University of Lisbon — School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Department of Communication. Her research interests lie at the intersection of novel information and communication technologies and the empowerment of marginalized and underserved communities through participatory methods.

Paula Carvalho, Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores — Investigação e Desenvolvimento, Lisbon, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

Paula Carvalho (PhD in linguistics) is a researcher at Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores — Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Lisboa and an invited assistant professor at the Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon. Over the last few years, she has been involved in several interdisciplinary research projects aiming at developing natural language resources, methods and applications to answer digital humanities and social sciences research problems. Among other topics, her research has been focused on the analysis and automatic detection of sentiment, irony and, more recently, online hate speech and conspiracy theories in social media.

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