When Can Compliments and Humour Be Considered Hate Speech? A Perspective From Target Groups in Portugal

Cláudia Silva; Paula Carvalho

doi:10.17231/comsoc.43(2023).4135

Autores

Cláudia Silva Laboratory for Robotics and Engineering Systems, Interactive Technologies Institute, Lisboa, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5334-3424
Paula Carvalho Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores — Investigação e Desenvolvimento, Lisboa, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2884-1250

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17231/comsoc.43(2023).4135

Palavras-chave:

discurso de ódio encoberto, estereótipos, elogio, humor, alvos do discurso de ódio

Resumo

Este artigo apresenta um estudo qualitativo acerca do discurso de ódio (DO) a partir das perspetivas de três comunidades minoritárias representativas em Portugal: afrodescendentes, pessoas de etnia Roma (ou cigana) e LGBTQ+. A investigação empírica envolveu a realização de três grupos focais, um com cada comunidade (n=17), tendo como principal objetivo investigar o modo como os membros desses grupos percecionam e experienciam o DO no contexto social e geopolítico português. Os resultados deste estudo mostram que o DO indireto (ou encoberto) pode ser mais prejudicial do que o DO direto (ou explícito), pois inibe os mecanismos de reação por parte dos alvos, o que leva à perpetuação de sistemas de opressão e decadência social. Além disso, os dados revelam que as formas encobertas de DO manifestam-se muitas vezes como elogios e humor, sendo comuns no local de trabalho, nos meios de comunicação e no ambiente online. De facto, o elogio e o humor são estratégias comunicativas, ancoradas em estereótipos positivos ou negativos, que contribuem para a normalização do DO na sociedade portuguesa. Neste sentido, esta investigação alerta para a importância de identificar formas encobertas de DO e de desenvolver estratégias eficazes, como contranarrativas, para combatê-las. Por fim, destaca a necessidade de conceber sistemas de deteção automática capazes de identificar o DO indireto, dada a sua prevalência nas plataformas digitais.

Downloads

Não há dados estatísticos.

Biografias Autor

Cláudia Silva, Laboratory for Robotics and Engineering Systems, Interactive Technologies Institute, Lisboa, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Cláudia Silva (doutorada em média digitais) é professora auxiliar convidada no Instituto Superior Técnico da Universidade de Lisboa, no Departamento de Engenharia Informática. É também investigadora integrada no Instituto de Tecnologias Interativas/Laboratório de Robótica e Sistemas de Engenharia. Anteriormente, lecionou como professora auxiliar convidada no Departamento de Comunicação da Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa. A sua pesquisa situa-se no uso das novas tecnologias de informação e comunicação para o empoderamento de comunidades marginalizadas e desfavorecidas através de metodologias participativas e inclusivas.

Paula Carvalho, Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores — Investigação e Desenvolvimento, Lisboa, Portugal/Departamento de Engenharia Informática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Paula Carvalho (doutorada em linguística) é investigadora no Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores — Investigação e Desenvolvimento, em Lisboa, e professora auxiliar convidada no Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa. Nos últimos anos, tem integrado as equipas de vários projetos de investigação interdisciplinar, focados no desenvolvimento de recursos, métodos e aplicações para análise de diversos fenómenos linguísticos no âmbito das humanidades digitais e das ciências sociais. Entre outros tópicos, a sua investigação tem incidido na análise e deteção automática de sentimento, ironia e, mais recentemente, do discurso de ódio online e teorias da conspiração nos média sociais.

Referências

Albelda Marco, M. (2022). Rhetorical questions as reproaching devices. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00077.alb DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00077.alb

Alt, N. P., Chaney, K. E., & Shih, M. J. (2019). “But that was meant to be a compliment!”: Evaluative costs of confronting positive racial stereotypes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 22(5), 655–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218756493 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218756493

Assimakopoulos, S., Baider, F. H., & Millar, S. (2017). Online hate speech in the European Union. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72604-5_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72604-5

Baider, F. (2022). Covert hate speech, conspiracy theory and anti-semitism: Linguistic analysis versus legal judgement. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 35, 2347–2371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-022-09882-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-022-09882-w

Baider, F. (2023). Accountability issues, online covert hate speech, and the efficacy of counter-speech. Politics and Governance, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v11i2.6465 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v11i2.6465

Baider, F., & Constantinou, M. (2020). Covert hate speech: A contrastive study of Greek and Greek Cypriot online discussions with an emphasis on irony. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, 8(2), 262–287.https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00040.bai DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00040.bai

Bakowski, P. (2022). Combating hate speech and hate crime in the EU. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2022/733520/EPRS_ATA(2022)733520_EN.pdf

Bardzell, S., & Bardzell, J. (2011). Towards a feminist HCI methodology: Social science, feminism, and HCI. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 675–684). Association for Computing Machinery. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/1978942.1979041

Ben-David, A., & Fernández, A. M. (2016). Hate speech and covert discrimination on social media: Monitoring the Facebook pages of extreme-right political parties in Spain. International Journal of Communication, 10, 1167–1193. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/3697

Bhat P., & Klein, O. (2020) Covert hate speech: White nationalists and dog whistle communication on Twitter. In G. Bouvier & J. Rosenbaum (Eds.), Twitter, the public sphere, and the chaos of online deliberation (pp. 151–172). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41421-4_7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41421-4_7

Billig, M. (2001). Humour and hatred: The racist jokes of the Ku Klux Klan. Discourse & Society, 12(3), 267–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926501012003001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926501012003001

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Breazu, P., & Machin, D. (2022a). Using humor to disguise racism in television news: The case of the Roma. Humor, 35(1), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2021-0104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2021-0104

Breazu, P., & Machin, D. (2022b). Racism is not just hate speech: Ethnonationalist victimhood in YouTube comments about the Roma during COVID-19. Language in Society, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404522000070 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404522000070

Brigham, J. C. (1971). Ethnic stereotypes. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 15–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031446 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031446

Brown, A. (2017). What is hate speech? Part 1: The myth of hate. Law and Philosophy, 36, 419–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10982-017-9297-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10982-017-9297-1

Buturoiu, D. R., & Corbu, N. (2020). Exposure to hate speech in the digital age. Effects on stereotypes about Roma people. Journal of Media Research, 13(2), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.24193/jmr.37.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24193/jmr.37.1

Cádima, F. R., Baptista, C., Martins, L. O., Silva, M. T., & Lourenço, R. (2020). Monitoring media pluralism in the digital era: Application of the media pluralism monitor in the European Union, Albania & Turkey in the years 2018-2019. Country report: Portugal. European University Institute.

Chovanec, J. (2021). ‘Re-educating the Roma? You must be joking...’: Racism and prejudice in online discussion forums. Discourse & Society, 32(2), 156–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926520970384 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926520970384

Comissão para a Igualdade e Contra a Discriminação Racial. (2020). Relatório anual 2019: Igualdade e não discriminação em razão da origem racial e étnica, cor, nacionalidade, ascendência e território de origem. ACM; CIDR; República Portuguesa.

Condon, L., Bedford, H., Ireland, L., Kerr, S., Mytton, J., Richardson, Z., & Jackson, C. (2019). Engaging gypsy, Roma, and traveller communities in research: Maximizing opportunities and overcoming challenges. Qualitative Health Research, 29(9), 1324–1333. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318813558 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318813558

Council of Europe. (2022). Recommendation CM/Rec (2022)16 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on combating hate speech. https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=0900001680a67955

Czopp, A. M. (2008). When is a compliment not a compliment? Evaluating expressions of positive stereotypes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 413–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.007

Czopp, A. M., Kay, A. C., & Cheryan, S. (2015). Positive stereotypes are pervasive and powerful. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 451–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615588091 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615588091

Czopp, A. M., & Monteith, M. J. (2006). Thinking well of African Americans: Measuring complimentary stereotypes & negative prejudice. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 28, 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2803_3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2803_3

Daniels, J. (2008). Race, civil rights, and hate speech in the digital era. In A. Everett (Ed.), Learning race and ethnicity: Youth and digital media (pp. 129–154). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1162/dmal.9780262550673.129

Davani, A. M., Atari, M., Kennedy, B., & Dehghani, M. (2021). Hate speech classifiers learn human-like social stereotypes. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2110.14839

De Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., & Wodak, R. (1999). The discursive construction of national identities. Discourse & Society, 10(2), 149–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926599010002002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926599010002002

Delcour, C., & Hustinx, L. (2017). The Roma as ultimate European minority and ultimate outsider? In J. Chovanec & K. Molek-Kozakowska (Eds.), Representing the other in European media discourses (pp. 259–280). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/dapsac.74 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/dapsac.74.12del

Dynel, M. (2018). Irony, deception and humour. Seeking the truth about overt and covert untruthfulness. De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501507922 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501507922

ElSherief, M., Ziems, C., Muchlinski, D., Anupindi, V., Seybolt, J., De Choudhury, M., & Yang, D. (2021, 7–11 de novembro). Latent hatred: A benchmark for understanding implicit hate speech [Apresentação de conferência]. The 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Punta Cana, República Dominicana. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2109.05322 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.29

European Commission. (s.d.). The EU Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online: The robust response provided by the European Union. https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/racism-and-xenophobia/eu-code-conduct-countering-illegal-hate-speech-online_en

European Commission against Racism and Intolerance. (2016). ECRI general policy recommendation n°15 on combating hate speech. https://rm.coe.int/ecri-general-policy-recommendation-no-15-on-combating-hate-speech/16808b5b01

European Commission against Racism and Intolerance. (2020). Annual report on ECRI’s activities covering the period from 1 January to 31 December 2019. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/ ecri-annual-report-2019/16809ca3e1

Fanon, F. (2017). Pele negra, máscaras brancas (A. Pomar, Trad.). Letra Livre. (Trabalho original publicado em 1952)

Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878

Fortuna, P., & Nunes, S. (2018). A survey on automatic detection of hate speech in text. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 51(4), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1145/3232676 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3232676

Given, L. M. (Ed.). (2008). The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. SAGE publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909

Gogová, L. (2016). Ethnic humour in a multicultural society. Ars Aeterna, 8(2), 12–24. https://doi.org/10.1515/aa-2016-0006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/aa-2016-0006

Grigoryev, D., Fiske, S. T., & Batkhina, A. (2019). Mapping ethnic stereotypes and their antecedents in Russia: The stereotype content model. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Artigo 1643. https:/doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01643 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01643

Hadarics, M., & Kende, A. (2019). Negative stereotypes as motivated justifications for moral exclusion. The Journal of Social Psychology, 159(3), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1456396 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1456396

Haladzhun, Z., Harmatiy, O., Bidzilya, Y., Kunanets, N., & Shunevych, K. (2021). Hate speech in media towards the representatives of Roma ethnic community. In N. Sharonova, V. Lytvyn, O. Cherednichenko, Y. Kupriianov, O. Kanishcheva, T. Hamon, N. Grabar, V. Vysotska, A. Kowalska-Styczen, & I. Jonek-Kowalska (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Systems (pp. 755–768). Colins AI.

Holmes, J. (2000). Politeness, power and provocation: How humour functions in the workplace. Discourse Studies, 2(2), 159–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445600002002002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445600002002002

Jha, A., & Mamidi, R. (2017). When does a compliment become sexist? Analysis and classification of ambivalent sexism using twitter data. In D. Hovy, S. Volkova, D. Bamman, D. Jurgens, B. O’Connor, O. Tsur, and A. S. Doğruöz (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Workshop on NLP and Computational Social Science (pp. 7–16). Association for Computational Linguistics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/W17-2902

Jussim, L. J., & Rubinstein, R. (2012). Stereotypes. Oxford University Press.

Kilomba, G. (2018). Memórias da plantação: Episódios de racismo cotidiano. Orfeu Negro.

Krobová, T., & Zàpotocký, J. (2021). “I am not racist, but...”: Rhetorical fallacies in arguments about the refugee crisis on Czech Facebook. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 21(2), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v21i2.14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v21i2.14

Liégeois, J. P. (2007). Roma education and public policy: A European perspective. European Education, 39(1), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.2753/EUE1056-4934390101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/EUE1056-4934390101

MacAvaney, S., Yao, H.-R., Yang, E., Russell, K., Goharian, N., & Frieder, O. (2019). Hate speech detection: Challenges and solutions. PLoS ONE, 14(8), Article e0221152. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221152 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221152

Maeso, S. R. (Ed.). (2021). O estado do racismo em Portugal: Racismo antinegro e anticiganismo no direito e nas políticas públicas. Tinta-da-China.

Magu, R., & Luo, J. (2018). Determining code words in euphemistic hate speech using word embedding networks. In D. Fišer, R. Huang, V. Prabhakaran, R. Voigt, Z. Waseem, & J. Wernimont (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Abusive Language Online (pp. 93–100). Association for Computational Linguistics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/W18-5112

Martin, R. A., Puhlik-Doris, P., Larsen, G., Gray, J., & Weir, K. (2003). Individual differences in uses of humor and their relation to psychological well-being: Development of the humor styles questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(1), 48–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00534-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00534-2

Matamoros-Fernández, A., & Farkas, J. (2021). Racism, hate speech, and social media: A systematic review and critique. Television & New Media, 22(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420982230 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420982230

Matsuda, M. J. (1989). Public response to racist speech: Considering the victim’s story. Michigan Law Review, 87(8), 2320–2381. https://doi.org/10.2307/1289306 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1289306

McInroy, L. B., & Craig, S. L. (2017). Perspectives of LGBTQ emerging adults on the depiction and impact of LGBTQ media representation. Journal of Youth Studies, 20(1), 32–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2016.1184243 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2016.1184243

Paz, M. A., Montero-Díaz, J., & Moreno-Delgado, A. (2020). Hate speech: A systematized review. SAGE Open, 10(4),1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020973022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020973022

Poletto, F., Basile, V., Sanguinetti, M., Bosco, C., & Patti, V. (2021). Resources and benchmark corpora for hate speech detection: A systematic review. Language Resources and Evaluation, 55(2), 477–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-020-09502-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-020-09502-8

Reynders, D. (2022). 5th evaluation of the Code of Conduct [Fact sheet]. European Commission. https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2022-12/Factsheet%20-%207th%20monitoring%20round%20of%20the%20Code%20of%20Conduct.pdf

Richardson-Self, L. (2018). Woman-hating: On misogyny, sexism, and hate speech. Hypatia, 33(2), 256–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12398 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12398

Rieger, D., Kümpel, A. S., Wich, M., Kiening, T., & Groh, G. (2021). Assessing the extent and types of hate speech in fringe communities: A case study of Alt-Right communities on 8chan, 4chan, and Reddit. Social Media+ Society, 7(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211052906

Sam Nariman, H., Hadarics, M., Kende, A., Lášticová, B., Poslon, X. D., Popper, M., Boza, M., Ernst-Vintila, A., Badea, C., Mahfud, Y., O’Connor, A., & Minescu, A. (2020). Anti-Roma bias (stereotypes, prejudice, behavioral tendencies): A network approach toward attitude strength. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 2071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02071

Sancastro007. (2011, 4 de setembro). Fernado Rocha Portugal a Rir 4 - Gago Vendedor [Vídeo]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQBs7ITL18U&t=25s

Sanguinetti, M., Poletto, F., Bosco, C., Patti, V., & Stranisci, M. (2018). An italian twitter corpus of hate speech against immigrants. In N. Calzolari, K. Choukri, C. Cieri, T. Declerck, S. Goggi, K. Hasida, H. Isahara, B. Maegaard, J. Mariani, H. Mazo, A. Moreno, J. Odijk, S. Piperidis, & T. Tokunaga (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (pp. 1768–1775). European Language Resources Association.

Schlesinger, A., Edwards, W. K., & Grinter, R. E. (2017). Intersectional HCI: Engaging identity through gender, race, and class. In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 5412–5427). Association for Computing Machinery. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3025453.3025766

Schmid, U. K., Kümpel, A. S., & Rieger, D. (2022). How social media users perceive different forms of online hate speech: A qualitative multi-method study. New Media & Society. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221091185 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221091185

Schmidt, A., & Wiegand, M. (2019). A survey on hate speech detection using natural language processing. In L.-W. Ku & C.-T. Li (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Social Media (pp. 1–10). Association for Computational Linguistics.

Seiter, E. (1986). Stereotypes and the media: A re-evaluation. Journal of Communication, 36(2), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1986.tb01420.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1986.tb01420.x

Silva, T. M. (2021). Discurso de ódio, jornalismo e participação das audiências. Enquadramento, regulação e boas práticas. Almedina; ERC.

Siy, J. O., & Cheryan, S. (2013). When compliments fail to flatter: American individualism and responses to positive stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030183 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030183

Taecharungroj, V., & Nueangjamnong, P. (2015). Humour 2.0: Styles and types of humour and virality of memes on Facebook. Journal of Creative Communications, 10(3), 288–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973258615614420 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0973258615614420

Toomey, R. B., McGuire, J. K., & Russell, S. T. (2012). Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 187-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.001

Trebbe, J., Paasch-Colberg, S., Greyer, J., & Fehr, A. (2017). Media representation: Racial and ethnic stereotypes. In P. Rössler (Ed.), The International encyclopedia of media effects (pp. 1–9). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0146 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0146

van Dijk, T. A. (1992). Discourse and the denial of racism. Discourse & Society, 3(1), 87–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926592003001005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926592003001005

van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926593004002006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926593004002006

Weaver, S. (2013). A rhetorical discourse analysis of online anti-Muslim and anti-Semitic jokes. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(3), 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.734386 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.734386

Wodak, R., & Reisigl, M. (2015). Discourse and racism. In D. Tannen, H. E. Hamilton, & D. Schiffrin (Eds.), The handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 576–596). John Wiley & Sons. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118584194.ch27

Woodzicka, J. A., Mallett, R. K., Hendricks, S., & Pruitt, A. V. (2015). It’s just a (sexist) joke: Comparing reactions to sexist versus racist communications. Humor, 28(2), 289–309. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2015-0025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2015-0025

Zannettou, S., Caulfield, T., Blackburn, J., De Cristofaro, E., Sirivianos, M., Stringhini, G., & Suarez-Tangil, G. (2018). On the origins of memes by means of fringe web communities. In Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference 2018 (pp. 188–202). Association for Computing Machinery. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3278532.3278550