Violência Online Contra as Mulheres: Relatos a Partir da Experiência da Pandemia da COVID-19
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17231/comsoc.42(2022).3981Palavras-chave:
violência online genderizada, comportamentos abusivos, vitimologiaResumo
Depois de a pandemia de COVID-19 ter sido declarada pela Organização Mundial de Saúde em março de 2020, um conjunto de medidas sanitárias foram adotadas internacionalmente para controlar a expansão do vírus. De entre estas, os confinamentos e isolamentos tiveram como consequência a adoção generalizada de tecnologias de comunicação como mediadoras em todas as situações quotidianas que implicassem contacto físico, do trabalho ao lazer. Para além das várias situações inéditas que a pandemia trouxe, esta adoção generalizada trouxe um contexto sem precedentes no que diz respeito à violência de género online, com particular enfoque nas mulheres. Este estudo debruça-se sobre a forma como as mulheres experienciam a natureza, a prevalência e os impactos da violência online ocorrida durante a pandemia de COVID-19. Com recurso a uma análise temática crítica, esta abordagem qualitativa resultou de entrevistas em profundidade a 30 mulheres vítimas/sobreviventes de violência online durante a pandemia. Os dados permitiram identificar 10 tipos de modalidades dinâmicas e híbridas de violência online contra mulheres. Os resultados deste estudo contribuem, não só para aprofundar o conhecimento sobre este período específico, mas, sobretudo, para a solidificação e tipificação de um léxico relativo à violência online, ajudando a colmatar uma falha existente em Portugal.
Downloads
Referências
Allen, K. A., Ryan, T., Gray, D. L., Mclnerney, D. M., & Waters, L. (2014). Social media use and social connectedness in adolescents: The positives and the potential pitfalls. The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 31, 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.2014.2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.2014.2
Amaral, I., & Simões, R. B. (2021). Violence, misogyny, and racism: Young adults’ perceptions of online hate speech. In J. S. Sánchez & A. Barrientos (Eds.), Cosmovisión de la comunicación en redes sociales en la era postdigital (pp. 869–881). McGraw-Hill.
Amnisty International. (2017, 20 de novembro). Amnesty reveals alarming impact of online abuse against women. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/11/amnesty-reveals-alarming-impact-of-online-abuse-against-women/
Anderson, J., Rainie, L., & Vogels, E. (2021, 18 de fevereiro). Experts say the ‘new normal’ in 2025 will be far more tech-driven, presenting more big challenges. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/02/18/experts-say-the-new-normal-in-2025-will-be-far-more-tech-driven-presenting-more-big-challenges/
Antoci, A., Sabatini, F., & Sodini, M. (2015). Online and offline social participation and social poverty traps: Can social networks save human relations? The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 39(4), 229–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250X.2015.1022278 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250X.2015.1022278
Associação Portuguesa de Apoio à Vítima. (2021). Violência contra as mulheres e violência doméstica em tempos de pandemia: Newsletter edição final. https://www.apav.pt/apav_v3/images/pdf/Newsletter_VMVD_EdicaoFinal.pdf
Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
Bekalu, M. A., McCloud, R. F., & Viswanath, K. (2019). Association of social media use with social well-being, positive mental health, and self-rated health: Disentangling routine use from emotional connection to use. Health Education & Behavior, 46(2), 69-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198119863768 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198119863768
Belzunegui-Eraso, A., & Erro-Garcés, A. (2020). Teleworking in the context of the COVID-19 crisis. Sustainability, 12(9), Artigo 3662. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093662 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093662
Berger, M. (2021, 24 de novembro). Gender-based online abuse surged during the pandemic. Laws haven’t kept up, activists say. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/11/24/online-abuse-surged-during-pandemic-laws-havent-kept-up-activists-say/
Boursier, V., Gioia, F., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2020). Facing loneliness and anxiety during the covid-19 isolation: The role of excessive social media use in a sample of Italian adults. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Artigo 1380. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.586222 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.586222
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Bray, F. (2007). Gender and technology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 36, 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.36.081406.094328 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.36.081406.094328
Butler, J. (1988). Performative acts and gender constitution: An essay in phenomenology and feminist theory. Theatre Journal, 40(4), 519–531. https://doi.org/10.2307/3207893 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3207893
Campbell, R., Sefl, T., Wasco, S. M., & Ahrens, C. E. (2004). Doing community research without a community: Creating safe space for rape survivors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33, 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000027010.74708.38 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000027010.74708.38
Center for Countering Digital Hate. (2022, 25 de janeiro). Nearly half of the accounts Twitter fails to remove for abusing women go on reoffend. https://www.counterhate.com/post/nearly-half-of-the-accounts-twitter-fails-to-remove-for-abusing-women-go-on-reoffend
Cinelli, M., Quattrociocchi, W., Galeazzi, A., Valensise, C. M., Brugnoli, E., Schmidt, A. L., Zola, P., Zollo, F., & Scala, A. (2020). The COVID-19 social media infodemic. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73510-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73510-5
Comissão para a Cidadania e Igualdade de Género. (2019, 20 de agosto). Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 139/2019. https://www.cig.gov.pt/2019/08/resolucao-do-conselho-ministros-n-1392019/
Comissão para a Cidadania e Igualdade de Género. (2020). Relatório intercalar de monitorização 2020 do PAVMVD. Plano de Ação para a prevenção e o combate à violência contra as mulheres e à violência doméstica. https://www.cig.gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Relatorio-Intercalar-de-Monitorizacao-2020-PAVMVD.pdf
Cockburn, C. (1992). The circuit of technology: Gender, identity and power. In R. Silverstone & E. Hirsch (Eds.), Consuming technology: Media and information in domestic spaces (pp. 18–25). Routledge.
Cockburn, C., & Ormrod, S. (1993). Gender and technology in the making. Sage.
Corneliussen, H. G. (2012). Gender-technology relations. Exploring stability and change. Palgrave MacMillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230354623
Couldry, N., & Hepp, A. (2018). The continuing lure of the mediated centre in times of deep mediatisation: Media events and its enduring legacy. Media, Culture & Society, 40(1), 114–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443717726009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443717726009
Dahlberg, L. (2001). The internet and democratic discourse: Exploring the prospects of online deliberative forums extending the public sphere. Information, Communication & Society, 4(4), 615–633. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180110097030 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180110097030
De Beauvoir, S. (2014). O segundo sexo (S. Milliet, Trad.). Nova Fronteira. (Trabalho original publicado em 1949)
Eger, L., Komárková, L., Egerová, D., & Mičík, M. (2021). The effect of COVID-19 on consumer shopping behaviour: Generational cohort perspective. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 61, Artigo 102542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102542 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102542
European Parliament. (2022). Women in times of COVID-19: EP flash eurobarometer. https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2712
Filipovic, J. (2007). Blogging while female: How internet misogyny parallels real-world harassment. Yale JL & Feminism, 19, 295–304. https://openyls.law.yale.edu/handle/20.500.13051/6958
Garbe, A., Ogurlu, U., Logan, N., & Cook, P. (2020). COVID-19 and remote learning: Experiences of parents with children during the pandemic. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 4(3), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471
Ging, D., & Siapera, E. (2018). Special issue on online misogyny. Feminist Media Studies, 18(4), 515–524. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1447345 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1447345
Haraway, D. (2006). A cyborg manifesto: Science, technology, and socialist-feminism in the late 20th century. In J. Weiss, J. Nolan, J. Hunsinger, & P. Trifonas (Eds), The international handbook of virtual learning environments (pp. 117–158). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-3803-7_4
Hou, Y., Xiong, D., Jiang, T., Song, L., & Wang, Q. (2019). Social media addiction: Its impact, mediation, and intervention. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 13(1), Artigo 4. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-4
Jenkins, H. (2009). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. An occasional paper on digital media and learning. John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/8435.001.0001
Kelly, L. (1987). The continuum of sexual violence. In J. Hanmer & M. Maynard (Eds.), Women, violence and social control (pp. 46–60). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-18592-4_4
Lawless, B., & Chen, Y. W. (2019). Developing a method of critical thematic analysis for qualitative communication inquiry. Howard Journal of Communications, 30(1), 92–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2018.1439423 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2018.1439423
Lupton, D. (2019). Toward a more-than-human analysis of digital health: Inspirations from feminist new materialism. Qualitative Health Research, 29(14), 1998–2009. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1049732319833368 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319833368
Marino, C., Hirst, C. M., Murray, C., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). Positive mental health as a predictor of problematic internet and Facebook use in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(7), 2009–2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9908-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9908-4
Maslow A. H. (1987). Motivations and personality (3.ª ed.). Harper & Row.
Massanari, A. L. (2015). Participatory culture, community, and play: Learning from Reddit. Peter Lang. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3726/978-1-4539-1501-1
Megarry, J. (2014). Online incivility or sexual harassment? Conceptualising women’s experiences in the digital age. Women’s Studies International Forum, 47, 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2014.07.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2014.07.012
Mittal S., & Singh, T. (2020). Gender-based violence during COVID-19 pandemic: A mini-review. Frontiers in Global Women’s Health, 1(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2020.00004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2020.00004
Morgan, H. (2020). Best practices for implementing remote learning during a pandemic. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 93(3), 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1751480 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1751480
Nadim, M., & Fladmoe, A. (2021). Silencing women? Gender and online harassment. Social Science Computer Review, 39(2), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319865518 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319865518
Neves, C. (2021, 3 de março). Queixas de violência doméstica diminuem mas só nos meses do estado de emergência. Diário de Notícias. https://www.dn.pt/sociedade/queixas-de-violencia-domestica-diminuem-mas-so-nos-meses-do-estado-de-emergencia-13408771.html
Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Schulz, A., Andi, S., Robertson, C. T., & Nielsen, R. K. (2020). Reuters Institute digital news report 2020. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2020-06/DNR_2020_FINAL.pdf
Nussbaum, M. (1995). Objectification. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 24(4), 249–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x
Papacharissi, Z. (2004). Democracy online: civility, politeness, and the democratic potential of online political discussion groups. New Media and Society, 6(2), 259–283. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461444804041444 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444804041444
Pavan, E. (2017). Internet intermediaries and online gender-based violence. In M. Segrave & L. Vitis (Eds.), Gender, technology and violence (pp. 62–78). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315441160-5
Piquero, A. R., Jennings, W. G., Jemison, E., Kaukinen, C. & Knaul, F. M. (2021). Domestic violence during the covid-19 pandemic - Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 74, Artigo 101806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101806 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101806
Plan International. (2020). Free to be online? Girl’s and young women’s experiences of online harassment. https://plan-international.org/publications/freetobeonline
Radovic, A., Gmelin, T., Stein, B. D., & Miller, E. (2017). Depressed adolescents’ positive and negative use of social media. Journal of Adolescence, 55, 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.002
Santos, S. (2022). Higher education students and online incivility: A gendered issue? In Proceedings of INTED2022 (pp. 4293–4297). https://library.iated.org/view/SANTOS2022HIG DOI: https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2022.1158
Singh, S., Dixit, A., & Joshi, G. (2020). Is compulsive social media use amid COVID-19 pandemic addictive behavior or coping mechanism? Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 54, Artigo 102290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102290 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102290
Sistema de Segurança Interna. (2021). Relatório anual de segurança interna 2020. https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc22/comunicacao/documento?i=relatorio-anual-de-seguranca-interna-2021
Sistema de Segurança Interna. (2022). Relatório anual de segurança interna 2021. https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc23/comunicacao/documento?i=relatorio-anual-de-seguranca-interna-2021
Spring, M. (2021, 18 de outubro). Get abuse and threats online - Why can’t it be stopped? BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-58924168
Vogels, E. A. (2021, 13 de janeiro). The state of online harassment. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/01/13/the-state-of-online-harassment/
Wajcman, J. (2000). Reflections on gender and technology studies: In what state is the art? Social Studies of Science, 30(3), 447–464. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631200030003005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030631200030003005
Walklate, S. (2017). Preface. In M. Segrave & L. Vitis (Eds.), Gender, technology and violence (pp. ix–xi). Routledge.
Wired Staff. (2016, 8 de janeiro). Dear internet: It’s time to fix this mess you made. Wired. https://www.wired.com/2016/08/open-letter-to-the-Internet/
World Health Organization. (s.d.). WHO coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard. Retirado a 17 de março de 2022, de https://covid19.who.int/
Wosik, J., Fudim, M., Cameron, B., Gellad, Z. F., Cho, A., Phinney, D., Curtis, S., Roman, M., Poon, E. G., Ferranti, J., Katz, J. N., & Tcheng, J. (2020). Telehealth transformation: COVID-19 and the rise of virtual care. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 27(6), 957–962. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocaa067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocaa067
Zhang, Y. T., Li, R. T., Sun, X. J., Peng, M., & Li, X. (2021). Social media exposure, psychological distress, emotion regulation and depression during the COVID-19 outbreak in community samples in China. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, Artigo 528. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.644899 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.644899
Downloads
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Secção
Licença
Direitos de Autor (c) 2022 Inês Amaral
Este trabalho encontra-se publicado com a Licença Internacional Creative Commons Atribuição 4.0.
Os autores são titulares dos direitos de autor, concedendo à revista o direito de primeira publicação. O trabalho é licenciado com uma Licença Creative Commons - Atribuição 4.0 Internacional.